Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden” mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia. UNESCO World heritage site. Ravenna, Italy. 5th century A.D.

Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden” mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia. UNESCO World heritage site. Ravenna, Italy. 5th century A.D.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden” mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia. UNESCO World heritage site. Ravenna, Italy. 5th century A.D.

Fifth century “Garden of Eden” mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. UNESCO World heritage site.

 

Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden”

 

The Garden of Eden as depicted in the first or left panel of Bosch‘s The Garden of Earthly Delights triptych. The panel includes many imagined and exotic Africananimals.^[1]

The Garden of Eden (Hebrew גַּן עֵדֶן, Gan ʿEḏen), also called Paradise, is the biblical “garden of God” described in the Book of Genesis and the Book of Ezekiel.^[2][3] Genesis 13:10 refers to the “garden of God”,^[4] and the “trees of the garden” are mentioned in Ezekiel 31.^[5] The Book of Zechariahand the Book of Psalms also refer to trees and water without explicitly mentioning Eden.^[6]

The name derives from the Akkadianedinnu, from a Sumerian word edinmeaning “plain” or “steppe”, closely related to an Aramaic root word meaning “fruitful, well-watered”.^[3]Another interpretation associates the name with a Hebrew word for “pleasure”; thus the Douay-Rheims Bible in Genesis 2:8 has the wording “And the Lord God had planted a paradise of pleasure” rather than “a garden in Eden”. The Hebrew term is translated “pleasure” in Sarah’s secret saying in Genesis 18:12.^[7]

Like the Genesis flood narrative, the Genesis creation narrative and the account of the Tower of Babel, the story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine garden to guard the Tree of Life.^[8] The Hebrew Bible depicts Adam and Eve as walking around the Garden of Eden naked due to their innocence.^[9]

The location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis as the source of four tributaries. The Garden of Eden is considered to be mythological by most scholars.^{[10][11][12][13]} Among those that consider it to have been real, there have been various suggestions for its location:^[14] at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;^[15]and in Armenia.^[16][17][18]

Biblical narratives

Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden”

Expulsion from Paradise, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tissot

Giacobbe Giusti, “Garden of Eden”

The Expulsion illustrated in the English Caedmon manuscript, c. 1000 CE

Genesis

Main articles: Genesis creation narrative and Adam and Eve

The second part of the Genesis creation narrative, Genesis 2:4-3:24, opens with YHWH–Elohim(translated here “the LORDGod”, see Names of God in Judaism) creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a garden that he planted “eastward in Eden”.^[19] “And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.”^[20]

The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Last of all, the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion for the man. In chapter three, the man and the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus living forever. Cherubim were placed east of the garden, “and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way of the tree of life” (Genesis 3:24).

Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, Chidekel (the Tigris), and Phirat (the Euphrates). It also refers to the land of Cush—translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.^[21] These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.^[22] In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what “the Greeks called Ganges” and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.^[23]

According to Lars-Ivar Ringbom the paradisus terrestris is located in Shiz in northeastern Iran.^[24]

Ezekiel

Main article: Ezekiel’s cherub in Eden

In Ezekiel 28:12–19 the prophet Ezekiel the “son of man” sets down God’s word against the king of Tyre: the king was the “seal of perfection”, adorned with precious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian cherub. But the king sinned through wickedness and violence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown to the earth, where now he is consumed by God’s fire: “All those who knew you in the nations are appalled at you, you have come to a horrible end and will be no more.” (v.19).

According to Terje Stordalen, the Eden in Ezekiel appears to be located in Lebanon.^[25] “[I]t appears that the Lebanon is an alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez 28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden”,^[26] and there are connections between paradise, the garden of Eden and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically) within prophetic writings.^[27] Edward Lipinski and Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the Garden of the gods (Sumerian paradise), the oldest Sumerian version of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.^[28]

Proposed locations

Map showing the rivers in the Middle East known in English as the Tigris and Euphrates.

Map by Pierre Mortier, 1700, based on theories of Pierre Daniel Huet, Bishop of Avranches. A caption in French and Dutch reads: Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good understanding of sacred history, by M. Pierre Daniel Huet.

The Garden of Eden is considered to be mythological by most scholars.^{[10][11][12][29][13][30]}However there have been suggestions for its location:^[14]for example, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;^[15] and in the Armenian Highlands or Armenian Plateau.^{[16][31][17][18]} British archaeologist David Rohl locates it in Iran, and in the vicinity of Tabriz, but this suggestion has not caught on with scholarly sources.^[32]

The location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis, chapter 2, verses 10–14:

And a river departed from Eden to water the garden, and from there it divided and became four tributaries.

The name of the first is Pishon, which is the circumnavigator of the land of Havilah where there is gold. And the gold of this land is good; there are bdellium and cornelian stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon, which is the circumnavigator of the land of Cush. And the name of the third is Chidekel, which is that which goes to the east of Ashur; and the fourth river is Phirat.

Parallel concepts

• Dilmun in the Sumerian story of Enki and Ninhursag is a paradisaical abode^[33] of the immortals, where sickness and death were unknown.^[34]
• The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology was somewhat similar to the Christian concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger intellectual association was made in the Cranach painting (see illustration at top). In this painting, only the action that takes place there identifies the setting as distinct from the Garden of the Hesperides, with its golden fruit.
• The Persian term “paradise” (borrowed as Hebrew: פרדס‎, pardes), meaning a royal garden or hunting-park, gradually became a synonym for Eden after c. 500 BCE. The word “pardes” occurs three times in the Hebrew Bible, but always in contexts other than a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon iv. 13: “Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard”; Ecclesiastes 2. 5: “I made me gardens and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits”; and in Nehemiah ii. 8: “And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king’s orchard (pardes), that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city.” In these examples pardes clearly means “orchard” or “park”, but in the apocalyptic literature and in the Talmud “paradise” gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, and in the New Testament“paradise” becomes the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the cursed) among those who have already died, with literary Hellenistic influences.

Jewish eschatology

In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah,^[35] the scholars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called “Garden in Eden”. The first is rather terrestrial, of abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the “lower Gan Eden”. The second is envisioned as being celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non-Jewish, immortal souls, known as the “higher Gan Eden”. The Rabbanim differentiate between Gan and Eden. Adam is said to have dwelt only in the Gan, whereas Eden is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.^[35]

According to Jewish eschatology,^[36][37] the higher Gan Eden is called the “Garden of Righteousness”. It has been created since the beginning of the world, and will appear gloriously at the end of time. The righteous dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly chayotcarrying the throne of God. Each of the righteous will walk with God, who will lead them in a dance. Its Jewish and non-Jewish inhabitants are “clothed with garments of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life” (Enoch 58,3) near to God and His anointed ones.^[37] This Jewish rabbinical concept of a higher Gan Eden is opposed by the Hebrew terms gehinnom^[38] and sheol, figurative names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the greatest possible distance from heaven.^[39]

In modern Jewish eschatology it is believed that history will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.^[40]

Islamic view

Mozarabic world map from 1109 with Eden in the East (at top)

The term jannāt ʿadni(“Gardens of Eden” or “Gardens of Perpetual Residence”) is used in the Qur’an for the destination of the righteous. There are several mentions of “the Garden” in the Qur’an (2:35, 7:19, 20:117), while the Garden of Eden, without the word ʿadn,^[41] is commonly the fourth layer of the Islamic heaven and not necessarily thought as the dwelling place of Adam.^[42] The Quran refers frequently over various Surah about the first abode of Adam and his wife, including surat Sad, which features 18 verses on the subject (38:71–88), surat al-Baqara, surat al-A’raf, and surat al-Hijr although sometimes without mentioning the location. The narrative mainly surrounds the resulting expulsion of Adam and Eve after they were tempted by Shaitan. Despite the Biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortality, which God specifically claimed it was forbidden to Adam and Eve. Some exegesis added an account, about Satan, disguised as a serpent to enter the Garden, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, resulting in disobeying God.^[43] These stories are also featured in the hadith collections, including al-Tabari.^[44]

Latter-day Saints

See also: Adam and Eve (LDS Church)

Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons or Latter-day Saints) believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess County, Missouri. It is recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that he will return to that place at the time of the final judgement^[45][46] in fulfillment of biblical prophecy.^[47]

Numerous early leaders of the Church, including Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Cannon, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located in nearby Jackson County, Missouri,^[48] but there are no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is unclear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it somewhere in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson County.^[49][50]

Art

The Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the “Sleep of Adam” (“Creation of Eve”), the “Temptation of Eve” by the Serpent, the “Fall of Man” where Adam takes the fruit, and the “Expulsion”. The idyll of “Naming Day in Eden” was less often depicted. Much of Milton’s Paradise Lost occurs in the Garden of Eden. Michelangelo depicted a scene at the Garden of Eden in the Sistine Chapel ceiling. In the Divine Comedy, Danteplaces the Garden at the top of Mt. Purgatory. For many medieval writers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a location for human love and sexuality, often associated with the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.^[51] One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden is made in Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still under Byzantine control. A preserved blue mosaic is part of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motifs represent flowers of the garden of Eden.

• 

  The Garden of Eden by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, a 16th-century German depiction of Eden

• 

  The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots and ostriches co-existing in the garden

• 

  Fifth century “Garden of Eden” mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. UNESCO World heritage site.

• 

  “The Garden of Eden” by Thomas Cole (c. 1828)

• 

  “The Garden of Eden” by Adi Holzermade in 2012.

  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_of_Eden

  http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence

 

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence
Artist	Andrea del Castagno
Year	1445–1450
Type	Fresco
Dimensions	453 cm × 975 cm (178 in × 384 in)
Location	Sant’Apollonia, Florence

The Last Supper (1445–1450) is a fresco by the Italian Renaissanceartist Andrea del Castagno, located in the refectory of the convent of Sant’Apollonia, now the Museo di Cenacolo di Sant’Apollonia, and accessed through a door on Via Ventisette Aprile at the corner with Santa Reparata, in Florence, region of Tuscany. The painting depicts Jesus and the Apostles during the Last Supper, with Judas, unlike all the other apostles, sitting separately on the near side of the table, as is common in depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art.

Sant’Apollonia was a Benedictine convent of cloistered nuns, and Castagno’s fresco was not publicly known until the convent was suppressed in 1866: Vasari, for example, seems not to have known of the painting.^[1] Thus its exclusively female audience should be considered in analyzing the work.^[2] Castagno painted a large chamber with life-sized figures that confronted the nuns at every meal. The fresco would have served as a didactic image and an inspiration to meditation on their relationship with Jesus. Painted with a careful attention to naturalistic detail – a sense of real space and light, seemingly tangible details of the setting, and lifelike figures – the work must have spoken forcefully of the continued significance of the Eucharistic meal in their own world.

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence

Refectory of Sant’Apollonia

Description

Although the Last Supper is described in all four Gospels, Castagno’s fresco seems most closely aligned with the account in the Gospel of John, in which eleven of the apostles are confused and the devil “enters” Judas when Jesus announces one of his followers will betray him.^[3] Saint John‘s posture of innocent slumber neatly contrasts with Judas’s tense, upright pose and exaggeratedly pointed facial features. Except for Judas, Christ and his apostles, including the recumbent St John, all have a translucent disc of a halo above their heads.

Giacobbe Giusti, ANDREA del CASTAGNO: Last Supper, Sant’Apollonia, Florence

Andrea del castagno, sant’apollonia 05

The detail and naturalism of this fresco portray the ways in which Castagno departed from earlier artistic styles. The hand positions of the final pair of apostles on either end of the fresco mirror each other with accomplished realism. The colors of the apostles’ robes and their postures contribute to the balance of the piece. The highly detailed marble walls hearken back to Roman “First Style” wall paintings, and the pillars and griffon statues recall Classical sculpture and trompe l’oeil painting. Furthermore, the color highlights in the hair of the figures, flowing robes, and perspective in the halos foreshadow advancements to come.

The Last Supper was a major work by Castagno and his studio. The quality of figures and details can be uneven. The right hand of St Peter appears to be replaced by a left hand. Some figures have a remote detachment from emotion, typical of early High Renaissance style, and exemplified by the style of Piero della Francesca. This work, located in the refectory of a convent of cloistered nuns, may or may not have been seen by Leonardo da Vinci was familiar with this work before he painted his far more emotional own Last Supper.

The fresco is in an excellent state of conservation, in part because it remained behind a plaster wall for more than a century. The contemporary fresco by Castagno on the top register, not protected, shows the more degradation, and depicts the Crucifixion, flanked by the Resurrection and Burial of Christ.

References

1. Jump up^ John Spencer, Andrea Del Castagno and His Patrons, Durham: Duke University Press, 1991, pp. 102-111.
2. Jump up^ Andrée Hayum, “A Renaissance Audience Considered: The Nuns at S. Apollonia and Castagno’s Last Supper, The Art Bulletin, 88 (2006), pp. 243-266.
3. Jump up^ Eve Borsook, The Mural Painters of Tuscany from Cimabue to Andrea del Sarto, 2nd Ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980, p. 87-89.

Last Supper (del Castagno).

hide v t e Last Supper in art
Paintings (by artist)	Barocci Bouts del Castagno Cranach Crespi Dali El Greco Fernandes Ghirlandaio Perugino Rosselli Rubens Tintoretto Veronese da Vinci conservation-restoration Vouet White

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Supper_(del_Castagno)

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Corridori, Villa dei Papiri, Ercolano

Giacobbe Giusti, Corridori, Villa dei Papiri, Ercolano

Autore: Roberto Fogliardi. Descrizione: corridori della Villa dei Papiri di Ercolano. I secolo d.C., ispirati a un originale greco del IV-inizio del III secolo a.C. Fotografati durante la mostra presso il Colosseo (luglio 2003-gennaio 2004).

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Char solaire de Trundholm

Giacobbe Giusti, Char solaire de Trundholm

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Char solaire de Trundholm

Giacobbe Giusti, Char solaire de Trundholm
Période	xve siècle av. J.-C.
Culture	Âge du bronze nordique
Date de découverte	1902
Lieu de découverte	Odsherred, près de Nykøbing (Sjælland)
Coordonnées	55° 53′ 24″ nord, 11° 34′ 19″ est
Conservation	Musée national, Copenhague
Géolocalisation sur la carte : Danemark Char solaire de Trundholm (Voir situation sur carte : Sjælland)

Le char solaire de Trundholm est un célèbre objet de bronze découvert en 1902 par un paysan dans le marécage de Trundholm à Odsherred, près de Nykøbing, en Zélande-du-Nord au Danemark.

L’objet a été daté du premier âge du bronze soit aux alentours de -1400. Il est aujourd’hui conservé au Nationalmuseet de Copenhague.

Description

L’ensemble mesure 60 centimètres de long. Le cheval, d’une belle facture, est une pièce de fonte en bronze; celui-ci repose sur quatre roues possédant quatre rayons; il est à noter que seulement une roue sur les quatre est demeurée intacte. Le disque solaire, d’un diamètre de 25 centimètres, repose sur deux roues et a conservé une partie de sa dorure sur une face. C’est la plus ancienne représentation de char solaire connue en Europe et il est important de noter que la présence d’un char dans cette région demeure remarquable pour cette période.

Signification

On admet généralement aujourd’hui que ce char solaire est la représentation en miniature d’un char cultuel que l’on promenait sur un parcours solaire-magique, comme nous l’indiquent les cultes de Nerthus en Allemagne du Nord et de Freyr en Suède¹.

La face dorée, située sur la droite du cheval, représenterait le parcours diurne du soleil d’est en ouest, l’autre face, sombre, le parcours nocturne. On soupçonnerait que le char était conduit par le soleil, mais également que le soleil pouvait être le char lui-même.

L’objet aurait été déposé en offrande dans une sépulture qui a disparu depuis.

Illustration

Depuis 2009, le Danemark diffuse une nouvelle série de billets de banque. Le char de Trundholm figure sur les nouveaux billets de 1 000 couronnes danoises².

Une copie du char solaire de Trundholm est située dans le musée central romain-germanique de Mayence.

Notes et références

1. ↑ d’après Björn Ulbricht, Im Tanze der Elemente. Kult und Ritus der heidnischen Gemeinschaft, Arun-Verlag, Wöl-flau 88, D-8313 Vilsbiburg ; (ISBN 3-927940-00-3)
2. ↑ Site officiel de la Banque nationale du Danemark [archive]

• Char solaire de Trundholm, sur Wikimedia Commons

• Âge du bronze danois
• Disque de Nebra
• Árvakr et Alsviðr, chevaux de la mythologie nordique censés tirer le char solaire

• (en) Reconstructing the Trundholm Sun Chariot [archive]

[afficher] v · m Canon de la culture danoise

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Char_solaire_de_Trundholm

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, RAPHAEL: Madonna of the Pinks, National Gallery, London

Giacobbe Giusti, RAPHAEL: Madonna of the Pinks, National Gallery, London

Madonna of the Pinks

Giacobbe Giusti, RAPHAEL: Madonna of the Pinks, National Gallery, London
Artist	Raphael
Year	c. 1506–1507
Type	oil on yew
Dimensions	27.9 cm × 22.4 cm (11.0 in × 8.8 in)
Location	National Gallery London

The Madonna of the Pinks (c. 1506–1507, Italian: La Madonna dei garofani) is an early devotional painting usually attributed to Italian Renaissance master Raphael. It is painted in oilson fruitwood and now hangs in the National Gallery, London.

Subject matter

The painting depicts a youthful Virgin Mary playing with the Christ childand handing him carnations. (The Italian title, La Madonna dei garofaniactually means The Madonna of the Carnation.) These flowers, whose botanical name is dianthus (Greek for ‘flower of God’), are a premonition of Christ’s Passion – according to Christian legend, the flower first appeared when the Virgin wept at the Crucifixion. The event takes place in a dimly-lit domestic setting influenced by Netherlandish art. The composition is based closely on the Benois Madonna by Leonardo da Vinci, although the colour scheme of blues and greens that link the Virgin with the landscape is Raphael’s own. Through the arched window is a landscape with a ruined building, symbolising the collapse of the pagan world at the birth of Christ.

Provenance

The subject matter and size of the painting, little larger than a Book of Hours, suggest that it may have been intended as a portable aid to prayer. The identity of its original patron is unknown, although an inventory from the 1850s suggests that it was commissioned for Maddalena degli Oddi, a member of a prominent Perugian family, after she had taken holy orders.^[1]

In the 19th century it was property of the painter Vincenzo Camuccini.

Attribution to Raphael

Only in 1991 was the painting identified as a genuine Raphael,^[2] by the Renaissance scholar Nicholas Penny. Although Raphael scholars were aware of the existence of the work, which had hung in Alnwick Castle since 1853, they considered it merely the best of several copies of a lost original. After a major public appeal the Madonna of the Pinks was bought in 2004 by the National Gallery from the Duke of Northumberland for £34.88 million, with contributions from the Heritage Lottery Fund and the National Art Collections Fund.^[3] To justify the expenditure it went on a nationwide tour to Manchester, Cardiff, Edinburgh and Barnard Castle.

In the summer of 2006 Caruzzi et al. published online research which alleged that Nicholas Penny‘s attribution and the associated defence of it published by the National Gallery are based on incomplete analysis, untenable arguments and misinterpretations. In 2007 the posthumous publication of James Beck, From Duccio to Raphael: Connoisseurship in Crisis disputed the attribution of the National Gallery’s painting Madonna of the Pinks to Raphael. Brian Sewellnotably criticised the painting of being of low quality and possibly forged, pointing out how the Madonna’s right leg seems disconnected from her body.

Painting materials

The palette is relatively limited compared to other works by Raphael.^[4]The sky and the blue drapery of the Virgin are painted in natural ultramarine and azurite, he further employed lead-tin yellow, malachiteand verdigris.^[5]

References

• National Gallery, London press release upon acquisition of the painting in 2004
• 2004 Review: The Annual Report of the National Art Collections Fund
• Article and link to paper by Desiderio Z. Caruzzi on the attribution of the Madonna of the Pinks to Raphael

Notes

1. Jump up^ Heavenly creature | | Guardian Unlimited Arts
2. Jump up^ “National Gallery to reveal its fakes in exhibition”
3. Jump up^ “British campaign to ‘save’ a popular Titian”
4. Jump up^ Roy, A., Spring, M., Plazzotta, C. ‘Raphael’s Early Work in the National Gallery: Paintings before Rome‘. National Gallery Technical Bulletin Vol 25, pp 4–35.
5. Jump up^ Raphael, Madonna of the Pinks, ColourLex

• The Madonna of the Pinks on the official National Gallery website

hide v t e Raphael
List of paintings List of works
Early works	Resurrection of Christ Baronci Altarpiece St. Sebastian Oddi Altar Solly Madonna Mond Crucifixion Three Graces St Michael Portrait of a Man Connestabile Madonna Madonna and Child The Marriage of the Virgin Vision of a Knight St George Colonna Altarpiece Portrait of Perugino 1 Madonna and Child with the Book
Florentine period	Portrait of Elisabetta Gonzaga 2 Portrait of Emilia Pia da Montefeltro 2 Portrait of Guidobaldo da Montefeltro Self-portrait Madonna of the Grand Duke Ansidei Madonna Young Man with an Apple Christ Blessing Madonna Terranuova Madonna of the Goldfinch Madonna of the Meadow Esterhazy Madonna Small Cowper Madonna St George and the Dragon La donna gravida Portrait of Agnolo Doni Portrait of Maddalena Doni Madonna of the Pinks Young Woman with Unicorn Madonna with Beardless St Joseph Saint Catherine of Alexandria Canigiani Holy Family La belle jardinière Deposition of Christ Portrait of a Young Woman Tempi Madonna Madonna Colonna Madonna de Bogota
Roman period	Portrait of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese La disputa The School of Athens Madonna of Loreto Aldobrandini Madonna Madonna with the Blue Diadem Portrait of a Cardinal Alba Madonna Niccolini-Cowper Madonna The Parnassus Cardinal and Theological Virtues The Prophet Isaiah The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple Portrait of Pope Julius II Madonna of Foligno Madonna with the Fish Triumph of Galatea Sistine Madonna Madonna of the Candelabra Madonna della seggiola Madonna dell’Impannata Madonna della tenda The Fire in the Borgo The Meeting of Leo the Great and Attila Deliverance of Saint Peter The Mass at Bolsena Portrait of Bindo Altoviti The Sibyls Ecstasy of St. Cecilia Portrait of Balthasar Castiglione La donna velata Portrait of Tommaso Inghirami Palazzo Branconio dell’Aquila Portrait of Andrea Navagero and Agostino Beazzano Portrait of Cardinal Bibbiena Church of Sant’Eligio degli Orefici Creation of the World Transfiguration Portrait of Pope Leo X with Two Cardinals Christ Falling on the Way to Calvary The Holy Family of Francis I Ezekiel’s Vision St. Michael Vanquishing Satan Madonna of the Rose Self-Portrait with a Friend La Fornarina Visitation Portrait of a Young Man Miraculous Draught of Fishes Christ’s Charge to Peter Healing of the Lame Man Death of Ananias Stoning of St. Stephen Conversion of the Proconsul Sacrifice at Lystra St Paul in Prison St Paul Preaching in Athens Palazzo Jacopo da Brescia St Margaret and the Dragon
Related	Giovanni Santi (father) Margarita Luti Adoration of the Shepherds (drawing) Raphael (1894 opera) La Fornarina (1944 film)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_of_the_Pinks

http://www.giacobbegiusti.com

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

The main inscription on the attic would originally have been of bronze letters. It can still be read easily; only the recesses in which the letters sat, and their attachment holes, remain. It reads thus, identically on both sides (with abbreviations completed in parentheses):

imp(eratori) · caes(ari) · fl(avio) · constantino · maximo · p(io) · f(elici) · avgusto · s(enatus) · p(opulus) · q(ue) · r(omanus) · qvod · instinctv · divinitatis · mentis · magnitvdine · cvm · exercitv · svo · tam · de · tyranno · qvam · de · omni · eivs · factione · vno · tempore · ivstis · rempvblicam · vltvs · est · armis · arcvm · trivmphis · insignem · dicavit

To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus: because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs.^[7]

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Detail of relief panel, south side, right panel of left arch

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Detail of north plinth on second column from east (see gallery), viewed from east, with Victoria (left), prisoners (right)

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Round relief, south side, far left. Departure for the hunt

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Obsidio (detail)

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

The last scene (North side of arch) in the Constantinian frieze on the Arch of Constantine. It recalls Marcus Aurelius in the liberalitas attic panel of the arch, overseeing the distribution of gifts to the public. Constantine is in the exact center of the frieze (in the center of this photo), seated on a podium (his head is missing). The similarity to Christian depictions of the throned Christ surrounded by disciples – intentional or coincidental – is obvious. Constantine’s right hand holds a tessera with slots for coins, some of which are falling out to be caught in the toga of a senator who gazes up at his benevolent leader

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Rome, Arch of Constantine, main entablature NW corner.

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Rilievi circolari dell’epoca dell’imperatore Adriano e fregio contemporaneo all’arco

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Capo barbaro supplicante, che abbraccia il figlio (dettaglio dal pannello della Clementia)

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Ritratto di Tiberio Claudio Pompeiano (al centro)

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Seconda parte: I prigionieri sono incalzati da una carica della cavalleria guidata dall’imperatore stesso e seguito da signiferi e cornicini

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Panneau sculpté de l’époque de Marc Aurèle

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Plinths, north side looking east

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Es scheint deutlich erkennbar, dass die Attikanachträglich aufgesetzt wurde

.

Arch of Constantine Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome
Arch of Constantine
Location	Forum
Built in	AD 315
Built by/for	Constantine I
Type of structure	Triumphal arch
Related	List of ancient monuments in Rome
Arch of Constantine

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

The Arch of Constantine, Rome – painted by Herman van Swanevelt, 17th century

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

South side, from Via triumphalis. Colosseum to right

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

North side, from the Colosseum

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

West side

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

East side, Forum behind

Relief panels, round reliefs and frieze over left (west) arch, from south

Round reliefs and frieze over right (east) arch, from south

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Arch of Constantino 2013

The Arch of Constantine (Italian: Arco di Costantino) is a triumphal arch in Rome, situated between the Colosseum and the Palatine Hill. It was erected by the Roman Senate to commemorate Constantine I‘s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312.^[a]Dedicated in 315, it is the largest Roman triumphal arch.^[1] The arch spans the Via triumphalis, the way taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph.

Though dedicated to Constantine, much of the decorative material incorporated earlier work from the time of the emperors Trajan (98–117), Hadrian (117–138) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), and is thus a collage.^[2] The last of the existing triumphal arches in Rome, it is also the only one to make extensive use of spolia,^[3] reusing several major reliefs from 2nd century imperial monuments, which give a striking and famous stylistic contrast to the sculpture newly created for the arch. This earned it the derisive nickname of Cornacchia di EsopoAesop’s Crow.^[4]

The arch is 21 m high, 25.9 m wide and 7.4 m deep. It has three archways, the central one being 11.5 m high and 6.5 m wide and the lateral archways 7.4 m by 3.4 m each. Above the archways is placed the attic, composed of brickwork reveted (faced) with marble. A staircase within the arch is entered from a door at some height from the ground, on the west side, facing the Palatine Hill. The general design with a main part structured by detached columns and an attic with the main inscription above is modelled after the example of the Arch of Septimius Severus on the Roman Forum.

History

The arch, which was constructed between 312 and 315 AD, was dedicated by the Senate to commemorate ten years (decennalia^[b]) of Constantine’s reign (306–337) and his victory over the then reigning emperor Maxentius (306–312) at the Battle of Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312,^[6] as described on its attic inscription,^[7] and officially opened on 25 July 315. Not only did the Roman senate give the arch for Constantine’s victory, they also were celebrating decennia, a series of games that happens every decade for the Romans. On this occasion they also said many prayers.^[8] However, Constantine had actually entered Rome on 29 October 312, amidst great rejoicing, and the Senate then commissioned the monument.^[9]Constantine then left Rome within two months and did not return till 326.^[10]

The location, between the Palatine Hill and the Caelian Hill, spanned the ancient route of Roman triumphs (Via triumphalis) at its origin, where it diverged from the Via sacra.^[6][4][11] This route was that taken by the emperors when they entered the city in triumph. This route started at the Campus Martius, led through the Circus Maximus, and around the Palatine Hill; immediately after the Arch of Constantine, the procession would turn left at the Meta Sudans and march along the Via sacra to the Forum Romanum and on to the Capitoline Hill, passing through both the Arches of Titus and Septimius Severus.

During the Middle Ages, the Arch of Constantine was incorporated into one of the family strongholds of ancient Rome, as shown in the painting by Herman van Swanevelt, here. Works of restoration were first carried out in the 18th century,^[3][c] the last excavations have taken place in the late 1990s, just before the Great Jubilee of 2000. The arch served as the finish line for the marathon athletic event for the 1960 Summer Olympics.

Dates of incorporated decorative material

Controversy

There has been much controversy over the origins of the arch, with some scholars claiming that it should no longer be referred to as Constantine’s arch, but is in fact an earlier work from the time of Hadrian, reworked during Constantine’s reign,^[6] or at least the lower part.^[d] Another theory holds that it was erected, or at least started, by Maxentius,^[8][e] and one scholar believed it was as early as the time of Domitian (81–96).^[16][6]

Symbolism

Whatever the faults of Maxentius, his reputation in Rome was influenced by his contributions to public building. By the time of his accession in 306 Rome was becoming increasingly irrelevant to the governance of the empire, most emperors choosing to live elsewhere and focusing on defending the fragile boundaries, where they frequently founded new cities. This factor contributed to his ability to seize power. By contrast Maxentius concentrated on restoring the capital, his epithet being conservator urbis suae (preserver of his city). Thus Constantine was perceived amongst other things as the deposer of one of the city’s greatest benefactors, and needed to acquire legitimacy. Much controversy has surrounded the patronage of the public works of this period. The German philosopher, Walter Benjamin observed that history is seen through the eyes of the victor (Über den Begriff der GeschichteVII, 1940), and Constantine and his biographers were no exception. Issuing a damnatio memoriae he set out to systematically erase the memory of Maxentius. Consequently, there remains considerable uncertainty regarding the patronage of early fourth century public buildings, including the Arch of Constantine, which may originally have been an Arch of Maxentius.^[11]

Sculptural style

Constantine’s Arch is an important example, frequently cited in surveys of art history, of the stylistic changes of the 4th century, and the “collapse of the classical Greek canon of forms during the late Roman period”,^[2] a sign the city was in decline, and would soon be eclipsed by Constantine’s founding of a new capital at Constantinople in 324.^[7] The contrast between the styles of the re-used Imperial reliefs of Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius and those newly made for the arch is dramatic and, according to Ernst Kitzinger, “violent”,^[2] although it should be noted that where the head of an earlier emperor was replaced by that of Constantine the artist was still able to achieve a “soft, delicate rendering of the face of Constantine” that was “a far cry from the dominant style of the workshop”.^[17] It remains the most impressive surviving civic monument from Rome in Late Antiquity, but is also one of the most controversial with regards to its origins and meanings.^[6]

Kitzinger compares a roundel of Hadrian lion-hunting, which is “still rooted firmly in the tradition of late Hellenistic art“, and there is “an illusion of open, airy space in which figures move freely and with relaxed self-assurance” with the later frieze where the figures are “pressed, trapped, as it were, between two imaginary planes and so tightly packed within the frame as to lack all freedom of movement in any direction”, with “gestures that are “jerky, overemphatic and uncoordinated with the rest of the body”.^[2] In the 4th century reliefs, the figures are disposed geometrically in a pattern that “makes sense only in relation to the spectator”, in the largesse scene (below) centred on the emperor who looks directly out to the viewer. Kitzinger continues: “Gone too is the classical canon of proportions. Heads are disproportionately large, trunks square, legs stubby … “Differences in the physical size of figures drastically underline differences of rank and importance which the second-century artist had indicated by subtle compositional means within a seemingly casual grouping. Gone, finally are elaboration of detail and differentiation of surface texture. Faces are cut rather than modelled, hair takes the form of a cap with some superficial stippling, drapery folds are summarily indicated by deeply drilled lines.”^[18]

The commission was clearly highly important, if hurried, and the work must be considered as reflecting the best available craftsmanship in Rome at the time; the same workshop was probably responsible for a number of surviving sarcophagi.^[18] The question of how to account for what may seem a decline in both style and execution has generated a vast amount of discussion. Factors introduced into the discussion include: a breakdown of the transmission in artistic skills due to the political and economic disruption of the Crisis of the Third Century,^[19]influence from Eastern and other pre-classical regional styles from around the Empire (a view promoted by Josef Strzygowski (1862-1941), and now mostly discounted),^[20]the emergence into high-status public art of a simpler “popular” or “Italic” style that had been used by the less wealthy throughout the reign of Greek models, an active ideological turning against what classical styles had come to represent, and a deliberate preference for seeing the world simply and exploiting the expressive possibilities that a simpler style gave.^[21] The sculptors of Constantine’s time were more interested in symbolism: both symbolism for religion as well as symbolism for history.^[22] One factor that cannot be responsible, as the date and origin of the Venice Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs show, is the rise of Christianity to official support, as the changes predated that.^[23]

The stylistic references to the earlier arches of Titus and Septimius Severus, together with the incorporation of spolia from the times of other earlier emperors may be considered a deliberate tribute to Roman history.^[24]

Iconography

The arch is heavily decorated with parts of older monuments, which assume a new meaning in the context of the Constantinian building. As it celebrates the victory of Constantine, the new “historic” friezes illustrating his campaign in Italy convey the central meaning: the praise of the emperor, both in battle and in his civilian duties. The other imagery supports this purpose: decoration taken from the “golden times” of the Empire under the 2nd century emperors whose reliefs were re-used places Constantine next to these “good emperors”, and the content of the pieces evokes images of the victorious and pious ruler.

Another explanation given for the re-use is the short time between the start of construction (late 312 at the earliest) and the dedication (summer 315), so the architects used existing artwork to make up for the lack of time to create new art. It could be that so many old parts were used because the builders themselves did not feel the artists of their time could do better than what had already been done by different people.^[22] As yet another possible reason, it has often been suggested that the Romans of the 4th century truly did lack the artistic skill to produce acceptable artwork, and were aware of it, and therefore plundered the ancient buildings to adorn their contemporary monuments. This interpretation has become less prominent in more recent times, as the art of Late Antiquity has been appreciated in its own right. It is possible that a combination of those explanations is correct.^[25]

Attic

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

South attic

On the top of each column, large sculptures representing Dacians can be seen, which date from Trajan. Above the central archway is the inscription, forming the most prominent portion of the attic and is identical on both sides of the arch. Flanking the inscription on both sides are four pairs of relief panels above the minor archways, eight in total. These were taken from an unknown monument erected in honour of Marcus Aurelius. On the north side, from left to right, the panels depict the emperor’s return to Rome after the campaign (adventus), the emperor leaving the city and saluted by a personification of the Via Flaminia, the emperor distributing money among the people (largitio), and the emperor interrogating a German prisoner. On the south side, from left to right, are depicted a captured enemy chieftain led before the emperor, a similar scene with other prisoners (illustrated below), the emperor speaking to the troops (adlocutio), and the emperor sacrificing a pig, sheep and bull (suovetaurilia). Together with three panels now in the Capitoline Museum, the reliefs were probably taken from a triumphal monument commemorating Marcus Aurelius’ war against the Marcomanni and the Sarmatians from 169 – 175, which ended with Marcus Aurelius’ triumphant return in 176. On the largitio panel, the figure of Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus has been eradicated following the latter’s damnatio memoriae.

From the same time period the two large (3 m high) panels decorating the attic on the east and west sides of the arch show scenes from Trajan‘s Dacian Wars. Together with the two reliefs on the inside of the central archway, these came from a large frieze celebrating the Dacian victory. The original place of this frieze was either the Forum of Trajan, or the barracks of the emperor’s horse guard on the Caelius.

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Detail of relief panel, south side, right panel of left arch

Main section

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

 

Detail of north plinth on second column from east (see gallery), viewed from east, with Victoria (left), prisoners (right)

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Round relief, south side, far left. Departure for the hunt

The general layout of the main facade is identical on both sides of the arch, consisting of four columns on bases, dividing the structure into a central arch and two lateral arches, the latter being surmounted by two round reliefs over a horizontal frieze. The four columns are of Corinthian order made of Numidian yellow marble (giallo antico), one of which has been transferred into the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano and was replaced by a white marble column. The columns stand on bases (plinthsor socles), decorated on three sides. The reliefs on the front show Victoria, either inscribing a shield or holding palm branches, while those to the side show captured barbarians alone or with Roman soldiers. Though Constantinian, they are modelled on those of the Arch of Septimius Severus (and the destroyed Arcus novus^[f]), and may be considered as a “standard” item.^[26]

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Round reliefs above right lateral archway, from south, over friezes

Plinths of columns on north side, looking west (see detail to right)

Detail of western plinths (see detail of left plinth in side bar)

Plinths, north side looking east

The pairs of round reliefs above each lateral archway date to the times of Emperor Hadrian. They display scenes of hunting and sacrificing: (north side, left to right) hunt of a boar, sacrifice to Apollo, hunt of a lion, sacrifice to Hercules. On the south side, the left pair show the departure for the hunt (see below) and sacrifice to Silvanus, while those on the right (illustrated on the right) show the hunt of a bear and sacrifice to Diana. The head of the emperor (originally Hadrian) has been reworked in all medallions: on the north side, into Constantine in the hunting scenes and into Licinius or Constantius I in the sacrifice scenes; on the south side, vice versa. The reliefs, c. 2 m in diameter, were framed in porphyry; this framing is only extant on the right side of the northern facade. Similar medallions, of Constantinian origin, are located on the small sides of the arch; the eastern side shows the Sun rising, on the western side, the Moon. Both are on chariots.

The spandrels of the main archway are decorated with reliefs depicting victory figures with trophies (illustrated below), those of the smaller archways show river gods. Column bases and spandrel reliefs are from the time of Constantine.

Spandrel over main arch

Constantinian frieze

Obsidio (detail)

Liberalitas (detail)

The horizontal frieze below the round reliefs are the main parts from the time of Constantine,^[7] running around the monument, one strip above each lateral archway and including the west and east sides of the arch. These “historical” reliefs depict scenes from the Italian campaign of Constantine against Maxentius which was the reason for the construction of the monument. The frieze starts at the western side with the Departure from Milan(Profectio). It continues on the southern, face, with the Siege of Verona (Obsidio) on the left (South west), an event which was of great importance to the war in Northern Italy. On the right (South east) is depicted the Battle of Milvian Bridge (Proelium) with Constantine’s army victorious and the enemy drowning in the river Tiber.^[7] On the eastern side, Constantine and his army enter Rome (Ingressus); the artist seems to have avoided using imagery of the triumph, as Constantine probably did not want to be shown triumphant over the Eternal City. On the northern face, looking towards the city, are two strips with the emperor’s actions after taking possession of Rome. On the left (North east) is Constantine speaking to the citizens on the Forum Romanum (Oratio), while to the right (North west) is the final panel with Constantine distributing money to the people (Liberalitas).^[27][28]

West: Profectio

South west: Obsidio

South east: Proelium

East: Ingressus

North east: Oratio

North west: Liberalitas

Inner sides of the archways

In the central archway, there is one large panel of Trajan’s Dacian War on each wall. Inside the lateral archways are eight portraits busts (two on each wall), destroyed to such an extent that it is no longer possible to identify them.

Inscriptions

The main inscription on the attic would originally have been of bronze letters. It can still be read easily; only the recesses in which the letters sat, and their attachment holes, remain. It reads thus, identically on both sides (with abbreviations completed in parentheses):

imp(eratori) · caes(ari) · fl(avio) · constantino · maximo · p(io) · f(elici) · avgusto · s(enatus) · p(opulus) · q(ue) · r(omanus) · qvod · instinctv · divinitatis · mentis · magnitvdine · cvm · exercitv · svo · tam · de · tyranno · qvam · de · omni · eivs · factione · vno · tempore · ivstis · rempvblicam · vltvs · est · armis · arcvm · trivmphis · insignem · dicavit

To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the greatest, pious, and blessed Augustus: because he, inspired by the divine, and by the greatness of his mind, has delivered the state from the tyrant and all of his followers at the same time, with his army and just force of arms, the Senate and People of Rome have dedicated this arch, decorated with triumphs.^[7]

The words instinctu divinitatis (“inspired by the divine”) have been greatly commented on. They are usually read as sign of Constantine’s shifting religious affiliation:^[7] The Christian tradition, most notably Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, relate the story of a vision of God to Constantine during the campaign, and that he was victorious in the sign of the cross at the Milvian Bridge. The official documents (esp. coins) still prominently display the Sun god until 324, while Constantine started to support the Christian church from 312 on. In this situation, the vague wording of the inscription can be seen as the attempt to please all possible readers, being deliberately ambiguous, and acceptable to both pagans and Christians. As was customary, the vanquished enemy is not mentioned by name, but only referred to as “the tyrant”, drawing on the notion of the rightful killing of a tyrannical ruler; together with the image of the “just war“, it serves as justification of Constantine’s civil war against Maxentius.

Two short inscriptions on the inside of the central archway transport a similar message: Constantine came not as conqueror, but freed Rome from occupation:

liberatori vrbis (liberator of the city) — fundatori qvietis (founder of peace)

Over each of the small archways, inscriptions read:

votis x — votis xx

sic x — sic xx

They give a hint on the date of the arch: “Solemn vows for the 10th anniversary – for the 20th anniversary” and “as for the 10th, so for the 20th anniversary”. Both refer to Constantine’s decennalia, i.e. the 10th anniversary of his reign (counted from 306), which he celebrated in Rome in the summer of 315. It can be assumed that the arch honouring his victory was inaugurated during his stay in the city.

Works modeled on, or inspired by, the Arch of Constantine

• Brandenburg Gate, Potsdam, Prussia (1770)
• Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Paris, France (1806)
• Marble Arch, London, England (1828)
• Siegestor, Munich, Germany
• Union Station, Washington, D.C., USA (1908)
• American Museum of Natural History (Central Park West facade), New York City, USA (1936)
• Kedleston Hall, Derbyshire, UK
• Facade of Church of Saint-Denis, Paris, France
• Arch of triumph, Pyongyang, North Korea

Giacobbe Giusti, Arch of Constantine, Rome

Arch of Constantine, viewed from Colosseum looking south west to Palatine Hill

• List of Roman triumphal arches

Notes

1. Jump up^ By the “Senate and people” (S.P.Q.R.) according to the inscription, though the Emperor may have “suggested”. See also: A. L. Frothingham. “Who Built the Arch of Constantine? III.” The Attic, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 19, No. 1. (Jan. – Mar., 1915), pp. 1-12
2. Jump up^ Constantine chose to date his accessionbrate his decennalia in the year July 315 to July 316 ^[5]
3. Jump up^ Deane^[12] comments that Gradara^[13] published an excerpt from the diary of Pietro Bracci in 1732, in which Bracci states that he carved new heads for seven of the Dacian slaves surmounting the columns and a completely new statue for the eighth (right of centre, south side). He also made new heads for the emperors and other figures on the reliefs between the slaves
4. Jump up^ For which, see Conforto,^[14] however, for the contrary view that the whole arch was constructed in the 4th century, see Pensabene & Panella ^[15]
5. Jump up^ The controversy extends to a number of other public buildings attributed to Constantine, as hinted at by Aurelius Victor in De Caesaribus^[11]
6. Jump up^ The Arcus novus, was erected by Diocletianca. 314 on the Via lata, one of three triumphal arches on that road, and was destroyed ca. 1491 during reconstruction of Santa Maria in Via Lata. The remains, including the plinths are now in the Boboli Gardens, in Florence.^[26]

Citations

1. Jump up^ Watkin, David (2011). A History of Western Architecture: Fifth Edition. London: Laurence King Publishing. p. 87.
2. ^ Jump up to:^abcd Kitzinger 1977, p. 7.
3. ^ Jump up to:^ab Elsner 2000.
4. ^ Jump up to:^ab Lanciani 1892, p. 20.
5. Jump up^ Ferris 2013, p. 20.
6. ^ Jump up to:^abcde Ferris 2013, p. 7.
7. ^ Jump up to:^abcdef Aicher 2004, p. 184.
8. ^ Jump up to:^ab Stephenson, Paul (2010). Constantine: Roman Emperor, Christian Victor. New York: The Overlook Press. p. 151.
9. Jump up^ Barnes 1981, pp. 44–47.
10. Jump up^ Ferris 2013, p. 11.
11. ^ Jump up to:^abc Marlowe 2010.
12. Jump up^ Deane 1921, p. 91.
13. Jump up^ Gradara 1918.
14. Jump up^ Conforto 2001.
15. Jump up^ Pensabene & Panella 2001.
16. Jump up^ Frothingham 1912.
17. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, p. 29.
18. ^ Jump up to:^ab Kitzinger 1977, p. 8.
19. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 8–9.
20. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 9–12.
21. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 10–18.
22. ^ Jump up to:^ab Watkin, David (2011). A History Of Western Architecture. London: Laurence King Publishing. p. 88.
23. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 5–6, 9, 19.
24. Jump up^ Ferris 2013, p. 13.
25. Jump up^ Kitzinger 1977, pp. 8–15.
26. ^ Jump up to:^ab Ferris 2013, p. 21.
27. Jump up^ Bandinelli & Torelli 1992.
28. Jump up^ Follo et al 2015.

References

• Aicher, Peter J. (2004). Rome alive : a source-guide to the ancient city. Wauconda, Ill.: Bolchazy-Carducci. ISBN9780865164734. Retrieved 19 October 2015.
• Bandinelli, Ranuccio Bianchi; Torelli, Mario (1992). L’arte dell’antichità classica. Volume 2: Etruria-Roma (in Italian) (2nd ed.). Torino: Utet. ISBN9788877501950. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
• Barnes, Timothy D. (1981). Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-16531-1.
• Conforto, Maria Letizia (2001). Adriano e Costantino: le due fasi dell’arco nella valle del Colosseo(in Italian). Milan: Electa. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
• Deane, Sidney N, ed. (January–March 1921). “Archaeological News July December 1920”. American Journal of Archaeology. 25 (1): 83–109. JSTOR497891.
• Elsner, Jaś (2000). “From the culture of spolia to the cult of relics: the Arch of Constantine and the genesis of late antique forms”. Papers of the British School at Rome. 68: 149–184. doi:10.1017/S0068246200003901. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
• Ferris, Iain (2013). The Arch of Constantine: Inspired by the Divine. Stroud: Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN9781445635446. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
• Follo, Valentina; Harris, Beth; Zucker, Steven (2015). “Arch of Constantine” (video). Art of the Ancient Mediterranean: Roman. Khan Academy. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
• Frothingham, A. L. (July 1912). “Who Built the Arch of Constantine? Its History from Domitian to Constantine”. American Journal of Archaeology. 16 (3): 368. doi:10.2307/497194.
• Gradara, C (1918). “Restauri settecenteschi fatti all’Arco di Costantino”. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Communale di Roma (in Italian). 46: 161–164.
• Kitzinger, Ernst (1977). Byzantine art in the making: Main lines of stylistic development in mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. ISBN9780674089556. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
  • Review: Art Bulletin 1979
• Pensabene, Patrizio; Panella, Clementina, eds. (2001). Arco di Costantino: tra archeologia e archeometria (in Italian). Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider. ISBN9788882650360. Retrieved 21 October 2015.

Books

• Bonamente, Giorgio (ed.) 1992. Costantino il Grande dall’Antichità all’Umanesimo; Atti del 2. colloquio sul Cristianesimo nel mondo antico, Università di Macerata, 18-20 dicembre 1990
• Ewald, Björn C.; Noreña, Carlos F., eds. (2010). The emperor and Rome : space, representation, and ritual. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN9780521519533.
• Frothingham, Arthur Lincoln (2012). Who Built the Arch of Constantine?: Its History from Domitian to Constantine. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN9781477633144. Retrieved 29 October 2015.
• Lanciani, Rodolfo Amedeo (1892). Pagan and Christian Rome. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
• Lenski, Noel, ed. (2012) [2006]. The Cambridge companion to the Age of Constantine (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN9781107013407. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
• L’Orange, Hans Peter; Gerkan, Armin von (1939). Der spätantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogens. Berlin: de Gruyter. ISBN9783110022490. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
• Middleton, John Henry (1892). The remains of ancient Rome. London: Adam and Charles Black. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
• Richardson, Lawrence (1992). A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN9780801843006. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
• Ryberg, Inez Scott (1967). Panel Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius (Monographs on archaeology and the fine arts, 14. ASIN: B0006BQ1JW). NY: Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  • Contents
• Varner, Eric R. (2004). Monumenta Graeca et Romana. damnatio memoriae and Roman imperial portraiture. Leiden: Brill. ISBN90-04-13577-4.
• Weitzmann, Kurt, ed. (1979). Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century : catalogue of the exhibition at the Metropolitan museum of art, November 19, 1977, through February 12, 1978. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN9780870991790. Retrieved 26 October 2015.

Articles and chapters

• Bieber, Margarete (1911). “Die Medaillons am Konstantinsbogen”. Mitteilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Roemische Abtheilung (in German): 214–237. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
• Jones, H. Stuart (1906). “Notes on Roman historical sculptures: II The Relief-Medallions of the Arch of Constantine”. Papers of the British School at Rome. 3: 229–251. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
• Jones, Mark Wilson (March 2000). “Genesis and Mimesis: The Design of the Arch of Constantine in Rome”. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 59 (1): 50–77. doi:10.2307/991562.
• Koeppel, Gerhard (1986). “Die historischen Reliefs der römischen Kaiserzeit IV: Stadtrömische Denkmäler unbekannter Bauzugehörigkeit aus hadrianischer bis konstantinischer Zeit”. Bonner Jahrbücher. 186: 1–90.
• Marlowe, Elizabeth (June 2006). “Framing the Sun: The Arch of Constantine and the Roman Cityscape”. The Art Bulletin. 88 (2): 223–242. doi:10.1080/00043079.2006.10786288. JSTOR25067243. (Full text available on line)
• Marlowe, Elizabeth (2010). Liberator Urbis Suae: Constantine and the Ghost of Maxentius. in Ewald & Noreña (2010, pp. 199–219)
• Patrizio Pensabene (1992). Il reimpiego nell’età costantiniana a Roma, in Bonamente, Giorgio 1992 Pt. 2 p. 749-768

Arch of Constantine.

Arch of Constantine (Rome) in art.

• 1960 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 1. p. 80.
• 1960 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 2, Part 1. p. 118.
• The Arch of Constantine, a detailed article “for scholars and enthusiasts”
• Inscriptions illustrated and discussed
• Google Maps satellite image
• Guided tour of the Arch of Constantine on Roma Interactive
• High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Arch of Constantine | Art Atlas

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine

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